Continue reading »]]> On Monday, 12th of Rabi-al-Awwal — 570 years after Jesus ascended into heaven to await his return before the end of the world — Lady Amina gave birth to her blessed son in the house of Abu Talib. Ash-Shaffa, the mother of Abd Al Rahman, attended his birth and as Lady Amina gave birth her blessed baby was delivered prostrating upon his tiny hands and knees, then sneezed and said, “Al Hamdulillah” — praise be to Allah — whereupon a voice from the heavens replied, “May Allah have mercy upon you.” As Ash-Shaffa looked out into the night sky the horizon became illuminated so that the very distant castles of Greece became clearly visible to her.

Incidentally, “Al Hamdulillah” was the same praise Prophet Adam offered as he sneezed upon reaching earth. The beautiful baby was born without a trace of dirt upon him, and a sweet aroma caressed his perfect little body. Lady Amina remembered the instruction she had been given in her vision and supplicated to Allah with it for her little son, then gave him to Ash-Shaffa, the mother of Abd Al Rahman to hold. News that Lady Amina had given birth to a son was sent straight away to Abd Al Muttalib.

As soon as he heard the good news he rushed to see his new grandson. When he reached the house his heart was filled with joy and tender loving care. He cradled the sweet baby wrapped in a white cloth in his arms and then took him to the Ka’ba where he offered a prayer of thanksgiving to Allah for the safe delivery of his grandson. Before returning his new grandson to Lady Amina he went home to show him to his own family. Standing at the door waiting for his father’s return was his three year old son Abbas.

Lovingly, Abd Al Muttalib told his son, “Abbas, this is your brother, give him a kiss,” so Abbas, who was in reality his uncle, bent over and kissed his new baby brother. After everyone had admired the baby, Abd Al Muttalib returned to Lady Amina and in accordance with her vision and a vision Abd Al Muttalib had seen, the sweet baby was named Muhammad. When people asked why they had named him Muhammad they replied, “To be praised in the heavens and earth.” Before that time the name Muhammad was unknown and no other child had ever been given that special name. Abu Talib’s house, the house in which the Holy Prophet (sa) was born exists today and is used to house an Islamic library.

Ash-Shaffa was not the only person to witness miraculous events of this very special night. As Othman, the son of Abi As’s mother gazed up into the night sky she witnessed the stars lower themselves and a light so brilliant appeared at the time of his birth that she could see nothing except light. In the kingdom of Chosroes, fortifications shook and balconies collapsed, whilst the waters of Lake Tiberias ebbed, and the famous flame of Persia, which had not been extinguished since it was lit a thousand years before, was suddenly quite unexplainably extinguished. In the heavens, meteors were commanded to be on guard so as to prevent the satans from listening to the news the angels bore about the events of this very blessed night.

Amongst the citizens of Mecca were several Jews, one of whom was knowledgeable of the scriptures. He knew from his learning and the signs of the time that the birth of a new prophet was imminent and anxiously awaited his arrival. On the night Prophet Muhammad, (sa) was born, a strange feeling came over him that prompted him to rush to the door of his house and ask some Koraysh tribesmen, who happened to be passing, if they had heard of any births that night.

The tribesmen replied that they knew of none, so he asked them to go and find out then bring word to him. He felt sure that this was the night in which the new prophet had been born, and if his feelings were correct he knew he would indeed be able to recognize him by a special, prominent mark on his skin that lay between his shoulders. Sometime later, the tribesmen returned to the expectant Jew and told him that a son had indeed been born to Lady Amina, the widowed wife of Abdullah, son of Abd Al Muttalib.

The Jew asked them to take him to see the newly born and his mother, so in haste they made their way to Abu Talib’s house. When they arrived, Lady Amina presented her darling son to them and as the cloth that covered him was gently rolled back the Jew saw the unmistakable mark and fainted. When he regained consciousness he announced the prophethood had been taken away from the Children of Israel and said, “O people of Koraysh, by Allah, he will conquer you in a way that the news will traverse both east and west.” The mark the Jew referred to was circular and read, “There is no god except Allah, and Muhammad is His Prophet”, and it was from this identifying mark that the sweet aroma of musk exuded.

Abdullah was a young man when he died and therefore had very little to leave his wife and unborn baby. All he was able to leave them was an Abyssinian maid named Barakah, which means blessing, a few camels and some goats. Barakah was also known by the name Umm Ayman. During the first days of our beloved Prophet’s life, Barakah helped his mother to take care of him, and Thuwaybah, who attended his birth, became his first wet-nurse.

In those days it was the practice of noble and well-to-do families to entrust their newly born infants to the care of good families living far from Mecca where the infant would be less likely to contract the many diseases that all too often accompanied the pilgrims. Among the many advantages of sending a newly born to be raised in the desert was that it was there that Arabic in its purest form was spoken, and the accomplishment of speaking pure Arabic was a most sought after quality. Youngsters also learned the essential art of survival through the mutual love and care for one another that in turn lead to excellent manners and a chivalrous nature. With this in mind Lady Amina and Abd Al Muttalib decided to send Muhammad to be raised in the desert.

Soon after his birth, several Bedouin families made their twice yearly journey to Mecca in search of a child to foster. No fee was requested by the foster parents as one might suppose, rather, the intent was to strengthen ties between noble, well-to-do families and perhaps receive a favor from its parents or relatives. Amongst the prospective foster mothers was a lady called Halima, the daughter of Abdullah Al Sadiyyah from the tribe of Banu Hawazin. Halima’s family had always been poor, and that year in particular had been harsh for them on account of the drought that devastated the area. Halima had a young baby of her own, so together with her husband, Abi Kabshah, and baby they traveled in the company of other families from their tribe to Mecca. Halima carried her son as she rode upon their donkey whilst her husband walked by her side and the sheep ran along beside them.

When they set out, the sheep’s milk had been a constant source of nourishment for them, but the strain of the journey took its toll and its milk dried up. Halima’s own milk was insufficient to satisfy her baby, and many a time her baby cried itself to sleep out of hunger. Before reaching Mecca, there was another setback, Halima’s donkey started to show signs of lameness, so they proceeded slowly at their own pace whilst the others went on ahead. Because of the delay, Halima and her family were the last of the prospective foster parents to reach Mecca. By the time she arrived each of the other prospective foster mothers had visited the homes of parents wishing to send their newly born to the safety of the desert, and chosen a baby.

However, the planning of Allah was that all had declined the offer to take Lady Amina’s baby on account of him being an orphan, and so when Halima arrived he was the only one available. As Halima entered Lady Amina’s house she found the tiny baby sleeping upon his back wrapped in a white woolen shawl under which a green piece of silk had been placed. Instantaneously, with just one glance, in the same way that the wife of Pharaoh’s heart had been filled with love for the baby Moses, Allah filled Halima’s heart with overflowing love. Halima was overcome by his beauty, and as she bent down to pick him up she smelt the delicate fragrance of musk.

Fearing she might disturb him, she placed her had over his chest and as she did he smiled, then opened his eyes and from his eyes beamed a radiant light. Gently, and lovingly she kissed him between his eyes and offered him her right breast and immediately felt a surge of milk, he accepted her breast and suckled away contentedly. After a little while she offered him her left breast but even at this very tender age fairness was inherent in his nature and he declined leaving it for his new suckling brother. Later on that day, Halima returned to her husband and told him that there was no doubt in her mind that she wanted to foster Lady Amina’s baby — it was of no consequence to her that the baby was an orphan, or that future favors may not be possible — the baby had completely captivated her heart.

It is through the nourishing milk a foster mother gives to her charge that the baby gains an extended family into which marriage to its siblings is not permitted. And so it was that Halima’s foster child would refer to her in later years as his mother, and to her children as his brothers and sisters. Right from the very beginning, the bonding between Halima and her foster child proved to be a very great blessing for not only her family but the entire tribe. And it was because of this very close relationship that her people were, in the years that followed, protected and led to Paradise.

Whilst Halima was nursing Lady Amina’s baby, her husband, Abi Kabshah, went to tend his sheep and was very surprised to find its udder full of milk. When he milked it there was so much milk that there was more than enough to satisfy the entire family, that night they drank their fill and slept peacefully. When they awoke, Abi Kabshah exclaimed, “Halima, by Allah, I see you have chosen a blessed spirit, did you notice how we spent such a blessed night and are enjoying its benefits?”

source: http://www.infinitelight.org/content/view/889/16/1/7/

Continue reading »]]> Was an Iraqi Scholar the World’s First Scientist?

by Bradley Steffens

Science is the lifeblood of modern life. It is the foundation of our technology. Its discoveries prolong our lives and save the lives of those we love. It fascinates us and sometimes disturbs us with its mind-boggling truths. But what is science, and who was its first practitioner?

Science is the study of the physical world, but it is not just a field of interest. It is a discipline—a system of inquiry that adheres to a specific methodology. That methodology is known as the scientific method. It consists of seven steps: 1) observation; 2) statement of a problem or question; 3) formulation of a hypothesis, or a possible answer to the problem or question; 4) testing of the hypothesis with an experiment; 5) analysis of the experiment’s results; 6) interpretation of the data and formulation of a conclusion; and 7) publication of the findings. One can study nature without adhering to the scientific method, of course. The result, however, is not science.

Many people throughout history have studied nature without the scientific method. Some of the best-known people to do so were the ancient Greeks. Scholars such as Aristotle attempted to explain natural phenomena, but they did not test their ideas with experiments. They based their findings on logic. As a result, they often erred. These mistakes were later discovered by scholars using the scientific method.

In 1589, for example, Galileo Galilei devised a series of experiments to test Aristotle’s ideas about falling bodies. He found Aristotle’s claim that heavy bodies fall at a faster rate than light bodies to be false. Galileo was not the first person to conduct experiments or to follow the scientific method, however. European scholars had been conducting experiments for three hundred years, ever since a Franciscan monk named Roger Bacon advocated experimentation in the thirteenth century. One of Bacon’s books, Perspectiva (Optics) challenges ancient Greek ideas about vision and includes several experiments with light that include all seven steps of the scientific method.

Bacon’s Perspectiva is not an original work, however. It is a summary of a longer work entitled De aspectibus (The Optics). Perspectiva follows the organization of De aspectibus and repeats its experiments step by step. But De aspectibus is not an original work, either. It is the Latin translation of a book written in Arabic entitled Kitâb al-Manâzir (Book of Optics). Written around 1021, Kitâb al-Manâzir predates Roger Bacon’s summary of it by 250 years. The author of this groundbreaking book was a Muslim scholar named Abu Ali al-Hasan ibn al-Hasan ibn al-Haytham.

Born in Basra (located in what is now Iraq) in 965, Ibn al-Haytham—known in the West as Alhazen or Alhacen—wrote more than 200 books and treatises on a wide range of subjects. He was the first person to apply algebra to geometry, founding the branch mathematics known as analytic geometry.

Ibn al-Haytham’s use of experimentation was an outgrowth of his skeptical nature and his Muslim faith. He believed that human beings are flawed and only God is perfect. To discover the truth about nature, he reasoned, one had to allow the universe to speak for itself. “The seeker after truth is not one who studies the writings of the ancients and, following his natural disposition, puts his trust in them,” Ibn al-Haytham wrote in Doubts Concerning Ptolemy, “but rather the one who suspects his faith in them and questions what he gathers from them, the one who submits to argument and demonstration.”

To test his hypothesis that “lights and colors do not blend in the air,” for example, Ibn al-Haytham devised the world’s first camera obscura, observed what happened when light rays intersected at its aperture, and recorded the results. This is just one of dozens of “true demonstrations,” or experiments, contained in Kitâb al-Manâzir.

By insisting on the use of verifiable experiments to test hypotheses, Ibn al-Haytham established a new system of inquiry—the scientific method—and earned a place in history as the first scientist.

About the Author:

An award-winning author of books for young adults, Bradley Steffens is a frequent contributor to online and print publications, including Gig and Broker Agent Magazine. A copywriter with 25 years experience, he creates website content for health insurance, life insurance, and homeowner’s insurance professionals. His most recent book, Ibn al-Haytham: First Scientist, is the world’s first biography of the medieval Muslim scholar known in the West as Alhazen.

source:
http://www.ibnalhaytham.net/custom.em?pid=861227#

Continue reading »]]> Were They All From Arabia?
by Fethullah Gulen
Prophets were raised and sent to their people in different lands and at different times. One hadith puts the number of Prophets at 124,000; another mentions 224,000. Both versions, however, should be evaluated critically according to the science of hadith. The exact number is not important; rather, we should realize that no people has ever been deprived of its own Prophet: There never was a people without a Warner having lived among them (35:24) and: We never punish until We have sent a Messenger (17:15).

To punish a people before warning them that what they are doing is wrong is contrary to His Glory and Grace. The warning precedes responsibility, which may be followed by reward or punishment: Anyone who has done an atom’s weight of good shall see it. And anyone who has done an atom’s weight of evil shall see it (99:7–8). If a Prophet has not been sent, people cannot know what is right and wrong and so cannot be punished. However, since every individual will be called to account for his or her good and evil deeds, we may infer that a Prophet has been sent to every people: We sent among every people a messenger with (the command): “Serve God and avoid evil” (16:36).

The Prophets were not raised only in Arabia. In fact, we do not even know all of the Prophets who were raised there, let alone elsewhere. We know only 28 of them by name (from Adam to Muhammad), and the Prophethood of three of them is uncertain. [1] We do not know exactly from where they emerged. Supposedly, Adam’s tomb and the place of his reunion with Eve is Jidda, but this information is uncertain. We know that Abraham spent some time in Anatolia, Syria, and Babylon. Lot was associated with Sodom and Gomorrah, around the Dead Sea; Shu’ayb with Madyan; Moses with Egypt; and Yahya and Zakariyya with the Mediterranean countries—they may have crossed to Anatolia, since Christians link Mary (Mayam ibn ‘Isa) and Jesus with Ephesus. But these associations remain suppositions at best.

We know the names of some Prophets sent to the Israelites, but not the names of any others or where they appeared. Moreover, because their teachings have been distorted and lost over time, we cannot say anything about who they were and where they were sent.

Take the case of Christianity. Following the Council of Nicea (325 CE), the original doctrine of God’s Oneness was dropped in favor of the human-made doctrine of the Trinity. For the Catholic Church, Jesus became the “son” of God, while his mother Mary became the “mother” of God. Some believed, rather vaguely, that God was immanent or present in things. Thus, Christianity came to resemble the idolatrous beliefs and practices of ancient Greece, and its followers began to associate other things and people with God, a major sin in Islam.

Throughout history, deviations and corruption of the Truth started and increased in this way. If the Qur’an had not informed us of the Prophethood of Jesus and of the purity and greatness of Mary, we would have difficulty in distinguishing the cults of and rites of Jupiter (Zeus) and Jesus, Venus (Aphrodite) and Mary.

This same process may have happened to other religions. As such, we cannot say definitely that their founders or teachers were Prophets or that they taught in a specific location. We only can speculate that Confucius, Buddha, or even Socrates were Prophets. We cannot give a definite answer because we do not have enough information about them and their original teachings. However, we know that the teachings of Confucius and Buddha influenced great numbers of their contemporaries and continue to do so.

Some say that Socrates was a philosopher influenced by Judaism, but they offer no proof. Words attributed to him by Plato imply that Socrates was “inspired” from a very early age to “instruct” people in true understanding and belief. But it is not clear if these words are attributed correctly or exactly what his people understood them to mean. Only this much is reliable: Socrates taught in an environment and manner that supports the use of reason.

Professor Mahmud Mustafa’s observations of two primitive African tribes confirm what has been said above. He remarks that the Maw-Maws believe in God and call him Mucay. This God is one and only, acts alone, does not beget or is begotten, and has no associate or partner. He is not seen or sensed, but known only through His works. He dwells in the heavens, from where he ordains everything. That is why the Maw-Maws raise their hands when praying. Another tribe, the Neyam-Neyam, expresses similar themes. There is one God who decrees and ordains everything, and what he says is absolute. He makes everything in the forest move according to His will, and sends thunderbolts against those with whom he is angry.

These ideas are compatible with what is said by the Qur’an. The Maw-Maws’s belief is very close to what we find in the Qur’an’s Surat al-Ikhlas. How could these primitive tribes, so far removed from civilization and the known Prophets, have so pure and sound a concept of God? This reminds us of the Qur’anic verse: For every people there is a messenger. When their messenger comes, the matter is judged between them with justice, and they are not wronged (10:47).

Professor Adil of Kirkuk, Iraq, was working as a mathematician at Riyadh University when I met him in 1968. He told me that he had met many Native American Indians while earning his Ph.D. in the United States. He had been struck by how many of them believe in One God who does not eat or sleep or find himself constrained by time. He rules and governs all of creation, which is under His sovereignty and dependent on His will. They also referred to some of God’s attributes: the lack of a partner, for such would surely give rise to conflict.

How does one reconcile the alleged primitiveness of such peoples with such loftiness in their concept of God? It seems that true Messengers conveyed these truths to them, some soundness of which can still be found in their present-day beliefs.

Some people wonder why there were no female Prophets. The overwhelming consensus of Sunni scholars of the Law and Tradition is that no woman has been sent as Prophet. Except for a questionable and even unreliable tradition that Mary and Pharaoh’s wife were sincere believers, there is no Qur’anic authority or hadith that a woman was sent to her people as a Prophet.

God the All-Mighty created all entities in pairs. Humanity was created to be the steward of creation, and thus is fitted to it. The pairs of male and female are characterized by complex relation of mutual attraction and repulsion. Women incline toward softness, weakness, and compassion; men incline toward strength, force, and competitive toughness. When they come together, such characteristics allow them to establish a harmonious family unit.

Today, the issue of gender has reached the point where some people refuse to recognize the very real differences between men and women and claim that they are alike and equal in all respects. Implementing these views has resulted in the “modern” lifestyle of women working outside the home, trying to “become men,” and thus losing their own identity. Family life has eroded, for children are sent to daycare centers or boarding schools as parents are too busy, as “individuals,” to take proper care of them. This violence against nature and culture has destroyed the home as a place of balance between authority and love, as a focus of security and peace.

God the Wise ordained some principles and laws in the universe, and created human beings therein with an excellent and lofty nature. Men are physically stronger and more capable than women, and plainly constituted to strive and compete without needing to withdraw from the struggle. It is different with women, because of their menstrual period, their necessary confinement before and after childbirth, and their consequent inability to observe all the prayers and fasts. Nor can women be available continually for public duties. How could a mother with a baby in her lap lead and administer armies, make life and death decisions, and sustain and prosecute a difficult strategy against an enemy?

A Prophet must lead humanity in every aspect of its social and religious life without a break. That is why Prophethood is impossible for women. If men could have children, they could not be Prophets either. Prophet Muhammad points to this fact when he describes women as “those who cannot fulfil the religious obligations totally and cannot realize some of them.” [2]

A Prophet is an exemplar, a model for conducting every aspect of human life, so that people cannot claim that they were asked to do things that they could not do. Exclusively female matters are communicated to other women by the women in the Prophet’s household.

[1] Luqman (31:12), Uzayr (9:30), and Zul-qarnain (18:83-98).
[2] Bukhari, Hayd, 6.

source: http://www.infinitelight.org/content/view/2/6/

Continue reading »]]> by Fethullah Gulen

Racism is one of our age’s severest problems. Everyone has heard of how black Africans were transported across the Atlantic Ocean in specially designed ships, thought of and treated exactly like livestock. They were enslaved, forced to change their names and religion and language, were never entitled even to hope for true freedom, and were denied all human rights. The West’s attitude toward non-Westerners remained unchanged until recent times. As a result, the political and social condition of Africans, even in the case of their descendents who lived in the West amidst non-black Americans or Europeans as theoretically equal fellow citizens, remained second-class (or even lower) citizens.

When the Messenger was raised as a Prophet, such racism was prevalent in Makka in the guise of tribalism. The Quraysh considered themselves (in particular) and Arabs (in general) superior to all other people. The Messenger came with the Divine Message and proclaimed that: “No Arab is superior to a non-Arab, and no white person is superior to a black person”; [1] Superiority is by righteousness and devotion to God alone (49:13); and: “Even if a black Abyssinian Muslim were to rule over Muslims, he should be obeyed.” [2]

The Messenger eradicated color-based racism and discrimination so successfully that, for example, ‘Umar once said of Bilal, who was black: “Bilal is our master, and was emancipated by our master Abu Bakr.” [3] Zayd ibn Haritha, a black slave emancipated by the Messenger, was his adopted son before the Revelation banned such adoption. The Prophet married him to Zaynab bint Jahsh, one of the noblest (and non-black) Arab and Muslim women. In addition, he appointed Zayd commander of the Muslim army sent against the Byzantine Empire, even though it included such leading Companions as Abu Bakr, ‘Umar, Ja’far ibn Abu Talib (the Messenger’s cousin), and Khalid ibn Walid (the invincible general of the age). [4] The Prophet appointed Zayd’s son Usama to command the army he formed just before his death. Included therein were such leading Companions as Abu Bakr, ‘Umar, Khalid, Abu ‘Ubayda, Talha, and Zubayr. This established in the Muslims’ hearts and minds that superiority is not by birth or color or blood, but by righteousness and devotion to God.

During his caliphate, ‘Umar paid Usama a higher salary than his own son, ‘Abd Allah. When his son asked why, ‘Umar replied: “My son, I do so because I know the Messenger loved Usama’s father more than me, and Usama more than you.” [5]

[1] Ibn Hanbal, 5:441.
[2] Muslim, ” ‘Imara,” 37.
[3] Ibn Hajar, al-Isaba, 1:165.
[4] Muslim, “Fada’il al-Sahaba,” 63.
[5] Ibn Sa’d, Tabaqat, 4:70; Ibn Hajar, 1:564.

source: http://www.infinitelight.org/content/view/733/4/

Continue reading »]]> Al-Husayn ibn Sailam was a Jewish rabbi in Yathrib who was widely respected and honoured by the people of the city even by those who were not Jewish. He was known for his piety and goodness, his upright conduct and his truthfulness.

Al-Husayn lived a peaceful and gentle life but he was serious, purposeful and organized in the way he spent his time. For a fixed period each day, he would worship, teach and preach in the temple. Then he would spend some time in his orchard, looking after date palms, pruning and pollinating. Thereafter, to increase his understanding and knowledge of his religion, he would devote himself to the study of the Torah.

In this study, it is said he was particularly struck by some verses of the Torah which dealt with the coming of a Prophet who would complete the message of previous Prophets. Al-Husayn therefore took an immediate and keen interest when he heard reports of the appearance of a Prophet in Makkah. He said:

“When I heard of the appearance of the Messenger of God, peace be on him, I began to make enquiries about his name, his genealogy, his characteristics, his time and place and I began to compare this information with what is contained m our books. From these enquiries, I became convinced about the authenticity of his prophethood and I affirmed the truth of his mission. However, I concealed my conclusions from the Jews. I held my tongue…

Then came the day when the Prophet, peace be on him, left Makkah and headed for Yathrib. When he reached Yathrib and stopped at Quba, a man came rushing into the city, calling out to people and announcing the arrival of the Prophet. At that moment, I was at the top of a palm tree doing some work. My aunt, Khalidah bint al-Harith, was sitting under the tree. On hearing the news, I shouted:

‘Allahu Akbar! Allahu Akbar! (God is Great! God is Great!’ When my aunt heard my takbir, she remonstrated with me: ‘May God frustrate you…By God, if you had heard that Moses was coming you would not have been more enthusiastic.’

‘Auntie, he is really, by God, the ‘brother’ of Moses and follows his religion. He was sent with the same mission as Moses.’ She was silent for a while and then said: ‘Is he the Prophet about whom you spoke to us who would be sent to confirm the truth preached by previous (Prophets) and complete the message of his Lord?’ ‘Yes,’ I replied.

Without any delay or hesitation, I went out to meet the Prophet. I saw crowds of people at his door. I moved about in the crowds until I reached close to him. The first words I heard him say were:

‘O people! Spread peace…Share food…Pray during the night while people (normally) sleep… and you will enter Paradise in peace…’

I looked at him closely. I scrutinized him and was convinced that his face was not that of an imposter. I went closer to him and made the declaration of faith that there is no god but Allah and that Muhammad is the Messenger of Allah.

The Prophet turned to me and asked: ‘What is your name?’ ‘Al-Husayn ibn Sailam,’ I replied.

‘Instead, it is (now) Abdullah ibn Sallam,’ he said (giving me a new name). ‘Yes,’ I agreed. ‘Abdullah ibn Sailam (it shall be). By Him who has sent you with the Truth, I do not wish to have another name after this day.’

I returned home and introduced Islam to my wife, my children and the rest of my household. They all accepted Islam including my aunt KhaIidah who was then an old lady. However, I advised them then to conceal our acceptance of Islam from the Jews until I gave them permission. They agreed.

Subsequently, I went back to the Prophet, peace be on him, and said: ‘O Messenger of God! The Jews are a people (inclined to) slander and falsehood. I want you to invite their most prominent men to meet you. (During the meeting however), you should keep me concealed from them in one of your rooms. Ask them then about my status among them before they find out of my acceptance of Islam. Then invite them to Islam. If they were to know that I have become a Muslim, they would denounce me and accuse me of everything base and slander me.’

The Prophet kept me in one of his rooms and invited the prominent Jewish personalities to visit him. He introduced Islam to them and urged them to have faith in God…They began to dispute and argue with him about the Truth. When he realized that they were not inclined to accept Islam, he put the question to them:

‘What is the status of Al-Husayn ibn Sailam among you?’

‘He is our sayyid (leader) and the son of our sayyid. He is our rabbi and our alim (scholar), the son of our rabbi and alim.’

‘If you come to know that he has accepted Islam, would you accept Islam also?’ asked the Prophet.

‘God forbid! He would not accept Islam. May God protect him from accepting Islam,’ they said (horrified).

At this point I came out in full view of them and announced: ‘O assembly of Jews! Be conscious of God and accept what Muhammad has brought. By God, you certainly know that he is the Messenger of God and you can find prophecies about him and mention of his name and characteristics in your Torah. I for my part declare that he is the Messenger of God. I have faith in him and believe that he is true. I know him.’

‘You are a liar,’ they shouted. ‘By God, you are evil and ignorant, the son of an evil and ignorant person.’ And they continued to heap every conceivable abuse on me…”

Abdullah ibn Sailam approached Islam with a soul thirsty for knowledge. He was passionately devoted to the Quran and spent much time reciting and studying its beautiful and sublime verses. He was deeply attached to the noble Prophet and was constantly in his company.

Much of his time he spent in the masjid, engaged in worship, in learning and in teaching. He was known for his sweet, moving and effective way of teaching study circles of Sahabah who assembled regularly in the Prophet’s mosque.

Abdullah ibn Sallam was known among the Sahabah as a man from ahl-al-Jannah “- the people of Paradise. This was because of his determination on the advice of the Prophet to hold steadfastly to the “most trustworthy handhold” that is belief in and total submission to God.

source: http://www.infinitelight.org/content/view/789/15/

Continue reading »]]> by Fethullah Gulen

Many years before the advent of Islam, Salman had been raised by his father to serve in the temples of Persia. As Salman grew he secretly started to challenge the validity of worshiping idols and started to search for the truth.

There were two sects of good living people who did not worship the Persian idols that interested Salman but both claimed that they followed the teachings of Jesus, however, the doctrines were distinctively different. He listened to both sects and chose not to follow the one that preached the concept of the trinity as it occurred to him that worshiping three gods instead of

One was very much akin to the pagan religions of Persia. He chose to follow the Nazarenes who taught the Creator was One and that Jesus was His prophet, not a god or His son, however, he hid his conversion from his father. Salman had many experiences in his search for the truth, and served several bishops.

The first bishop was, however, corrupt who took from the poor and used the proceeds to satisfy his lusts, so he abandoned him in search of one more pious. He found a pious Nazarene bishop to teach him and served him for many years until his death. When he died Salman sought to serve another Nazarene bishop and was blessed to find one who was more knowledgeable and pious than the last.

Bishops of 1400 Years Ago

The bishop spoke to him many times about a special prophecy of Jesus. Salman was taught that it was written in the Holy Scriptures that Prophet Jesus had foretold the coming of a new prophet who would be sent after him, and that he would appear in Arabia and went on to described the location of his appearance.

As death approached the bishop, Salman asked if he knew of another bishop to guide him but the Nazarene bishop said he knew of none, however, he advised him to go in search of the city he described in Arabia.

Bishops of Today

It seems strange that the bishops of 1400 years ago awaited the coming of Prophet Muhammad (sa). They knew his signs and even his birth-place, yet after his coming and their rejection they abandoned this prophecy so that they neither await the coming of the last Prophet of Allah (sa) nor even speak of it.

Salman Arrival in Medina

It was shortly after the death of the bishop that Salman’s father learned of his son’s conversion, in a burst of rage he had his son bound with rope so that he could not leave the house. Salman was a strong young man, and one day as he sat bound in his room news arrived that an Arab caravan was about to return to Arabia.

It was the opportunity he had been waiting for so he summoned all his strength, broke loose from the ropes that bound him and went to them. When Salman met the leader of the caravan he offered him a herd of camels and all his wealth if he would take him with them, the deal was struck and so shortly thereafter he left with them.

Just before the caravan reached Yathrib, as Medina was then called, the Arabs took not only Salman’s camels and wealth but sold him into slavery to a Jew from the tribe of Krayzah. Salman was very disheartened by the turn of events until the Prophet’s arrival in Medina.

It was then that he was able to recognize that his circumstances had not been a misfortune, as he had previously thought, but a very great blessing of Allah to him, for he had unknowingly, and certainly not through his own planning, arrived at the place the bishop described to him and so it was that Salman converted to Islam.

Salman did his best to follow the ways of Islam but it was difficult and it grieved him when he was unable to take part in the encounters of Badr and Uhud, but as he was a slave he had no choice but to remain behind. Salman seldom had a chance to meet his fellow Muslims as his owner made him work long hours in the fields and groves.

He longed to be free and join his brethren and so one day he decided to go to his owner and asked how much he would need to buy himself out of his bondage. His owner demanded a very high price for his release — no less than forty ounces of gold as well as three hundred planted date palms — and he became very disheartened. One day, Salman was blessed to meet the Prophet (sa) and told him of his predicament.

The Prophet (sa), who was deeply touched by Salman’s story, told Salman to write his owner an agreement, saying that he would pay the amount required in full. When the Prophet (sa) told his companions about Salman and asked them to donate as many date palms as they could, the companions responded generously. Some gave as many as thirty young palm tress, others twenty and so on until the required number was satisfied.

The Humility of the Prophet (sa) Who Labored to Secure the Release of His Follower

Now that the palms had been gathered, the Prophet (sa) told Salman to go and prepare the land in readiness to plant the young trees and that once he had finished he would plant the trees himself. The companions joined Salman in the preparation of the ground and together they dug the holes.

When all was finished they told the Prophet (sa) so he returned with them to the grove and planted all but one of the trees. All the saplings flourished except for the one that had not been planted by him whereupon another sapling was planted. Prophet Muhammad (sa) had been given a nugget of gold — about the size of a hen’s egg — and without a second thought gave it to Salman telling him to buy his freedom with it.

Salman was concerned that the weight of the nugget would be insufficient and asked how much more gold would be necessary to complete the agreement. The Prophet (sa) supplicated to Allah, then took the nugget, put it in his mouth, rolled his tongue around it, then gave it back to Salman saying: “Take it, and pay the full price with it.” When the nugget was weighed, it weighed exactly forty ounces and Salman was released from captivity.

source: http://www.infinitelight.org/content/view/8039/16/

Continue reading »]]> by Fethullah Gulen

Question: Was Muhammad’s Mission Limited and Temporary?

Answer:
All of the available information and resources, including his life, shows that his mission was universal and eternal. Such men as Alexander the “Great,” the Roman Caesars, Napoleon, Hitler, and the imperialists of Europe, Russia, and America all sought extensive dominion for the sake of worldly power and authority. But when Prophet Muhammad ordered his followers to spread Islam all over the world, his aim was to remove the obstacles preventing human happiness in this world and the next, to prevent them from going to Hell, and to enable them to regain their lost values and inherent purity. As the final Messenger, always under His Guidance and Command, his life was a struggle to spread the light of Islam as far as possible so that others might hear the Divine Message. Certainly he succeeded.

Let’s go over some points that demonstrate his mission’s universality:

• While still in Makka, he sent some Muslims to Abyssinia. Through the efforts of those believers, many Abyssinians had the chance to know and embrace Islam. While this migration was undertaken to escape intense persecution at home, it also caused the king Negus and other Abyssinian nobles to convert to Islam. This was one of the first proofs of universality.

• Among the early Muslims were Bilal (from Abyssinia), Suhayb (from Rum [Byzantium]), Salman (from Persia), and others. Although they were from different nations and races, they were in the first rank of Muslims. Furthermore, the fact that such people and many more non-Arabs were given higher ranks and esteem than many Arabs shows that Islam, from the beginning, had a universal perspective.

• Long before the conquest of Iraq and Persia, the Prophet told Suraqa that one day he would wear the bracelets of Chosroes, son of Ormuz, Emperor of Persia. This indicates that the Prophet knew that Islam would be carried to Iraq and Persia, and implies that it had to be carried there. It happened just as the Prophet predicted.

• While resting in the house of Umm Haram bint Milhan (his paternal aunt and wife of ‘Ubada ibn Samit), the Prophet slept for a short while. When he awoke, he said smilingly: My community has been shown to me. I saw it waging war on the seas like kings sitting on thrones.” [1] Forty years later, Umm Haram accompanied ‘Ubada on the conquest of Cyprus. She died and was buried there, where her grave can still be seen. As before, it was an indication from the Prophet that his Companions would, and must, carry the Divine Message overseas.

• Once the Prophet told his Companions: “Egypt will be conquered after my death. Be kind and benevolent to its people. Deal with them gently, for there is kinship and duty between you and them.” [2] So he informed them that Islam would reach Egypt during their lifetimes, and asked them to preserve the kinship established by his marriage to Mary, the Egyptian Copt.

• Before the Battle of Khandaq, while he was digging the ditch, the Prophet foretold the conquest of Hira, the fall of the columns of Chosroes’ palace (the Persian Empire), and the capture of Damascus. It happened as he foretold. [3]

Many Prophetic traditions and Qur’anic verses also state clearly that his Prophethood was for all nations and all times. Among them are the following:

• In one hadith, the Prophet says: “Each Messenger was sent to his own nation. I was sent to humanity.” [4] In another tradition, it is narrated as “to blacks and whites.” Confirming this, al-Tabari narrates a different hadith: “I was sent to all both as a mercy and a Prophet. Complete my mission. May God’s mercy be on you.” [5]

• When Chosroes’ envoy visited him, the Prophet said to him: “In the near future, my religion and its sovereignty will reach Chosroes’ throne.” [6]

• Centuries before the conquest of Anatolia and Constantinople (now Istanbul), he foretold that Muslim armies would reach Europe and that Constantinople would be conquered. Many attempts were made to realize this and be blessed, for, in the words of the Prophet: “Constantinople will be conquered. Blessed is the commander who will conquer it, and blessed are his troops.” [7] Since that city was a symbol of a large dominion, the Prophet was directing his community to carry Islam worldwide.

The Qur’anic verses related to the Prophet’s mission are all self-explanatory. They say unmistakably that the Divine Revelation, through the Prophet, was meant for all humanity. Muhammad was commissioned to warn both humanity and jinn. For instance:

This is no less than a message to (all) the worlds (38:87).

This is but a warning; an eloquent Qur’an to admonish the living and to pass judgment on the unbelievers (36:70).

We have sent you to all humanity, giving them glad tidings and warning them, but most people understand not (34:28).

Say: “O People! I am sent unto you all, as the Messenger, to whom belongs the dominion of the heavens and the Earth. (7:158)

The Qur’an expressly tells us that former Prophets were sent to their particular community or nation, and draws our attention to the difference between them and Prophet Muhammad. For instance:

We sent Noah to his people. He said: “O my people! Worship God! You have no other God but Him.” (7:59)

To the ‘Ad, We sent Hud, one of their own brethren. He said: “O my people! Worship God! You have no other god but Him.” (7:65)

To the Thamud, We sent Salih, one of their own brethren. He said: “O my people! Worship God! You have no other god but Him.” (7:73)

We also sent Lut; He said to his people. (7:80)

To the people of Madyan We sent Shu’ayb, one of their own brethren. (7:85)

Moreover, with almost every mention of these Prophets, the Qur’an states that they were raised from among their own brethren and sent to their own nation. Thus, there is no ambiguity over who was a Prophet for his own nation and who was the one for humanity.

Since the first revelation, the Prophet has been heard and respected almost everywhere. His teachings, which have established a way of life for peoples as far apart as China and Morocco, have touched the hearts of countless people in every part of the world. They have been—and remain—the most enduring model for a balanced, civilized life, and have led to human development in every field.

Despite the most vicious and sustained oppression of Muslims, the vandalizing of their culture, the misrepresentation of their values and history, Islam’s principles and ideals remain fresh and vivid in the hearts of the great majority of Muslims. Indeed, true Muslims are respected, and even many non-Muslims agree that our problems can be resolved only by applying those principles. Islam’s sheer endurance, through the conquest and defeat of its followers as well as among so many different peoples and languages, cultures, and climates, proves that Prophet Muhammad’s mission is for all people and eternal.

[1] Al-Bidaya wa al-Nihaya, 7:152.
[2] Al-Tabari, 4:228.
[3] Al-Bidaya wa al-Nihaya, 4:99.
[4] Bukhari, Jihad, 122.
[5] Al-Tabari, 2:625.
[6] Al-Kamil, 2:146.
[7] Ibn Hanbal, Musnad, 4:335.

source: http://www.infinitelight.org/content/view/3/1/

Continue reading »]]> by Kenan Cetinkaya

E-mail: kchetinkaya@hotmail.com

HISTORY AND ARCHITECTURE

OF

HAGIA SOPHIA

Introduction
In this paper I go deep inside into history, architecture and theology of Hagia Sophia, the unique building which represents both Islamic and Christian architectural characteristics. In the history chapter, I discuss it under three points; Byzantine Era, Ottoman Era, and Modern Turkey Era. In the Architecture part, I examine and described the building’s unique architecture. Again, I discussed it under headings; Byzantine Era and Ottoman Era.

A) HISTORY

Outline

Hagia Sophia (Turkish: Ayasofya, Greek: Αγία Σοφία; “Holy Wisdom”, Latin: Sancta Sophia or Sancta Sapientia) is a former patriarchal basilica, later a mosque, now a museum in Istanbul, Turkey. It is considered the major representation of Byzantine architecture. Hagia Sophia was the largest cathedral ever built in the world till Seville Cathedral completed in 1520, and for nearly a thousand years (946 years) it served as Christian place of worship.[1]

The outstanding building was originally constructed as a church between A.D. 532 and 537 on the orders of the Byzantine Emperor Justinian. At that time it was the third Church of the “Holy Wisdom” to dwell in the site. It was designed by two great architects of Byzantine Empire, Isidore of Miletus and Anthemius of Tralles.

In 1453, Constantinople was conquered by the Ottoman Turks and Sultan Muhammad II. He immediately ordered the building to be transformed into the mosque. Therefore, the bells, altar, iconostasis, and sacrificial vessels were removed, and by the way many of the mosaics were eventually displayed. The Islamic features such as the mihrab, the minbar, and the minarets were added over the course of its history under the Ottomans. It remained as one of the important mosques of Muslim world until 1935, when it was converted into a museum by the Republic of Turkey after ending of Ottoman Empire era.

1) Byzantine Era

The First Church:

Nothing remains of the first church that was built on this location, known as the Μεγάλη Ἐκκλησία (Megálē Ekklēsíā, “Great Church”), or in Latin “Magna Ecclesia”.[2] The place where the first church built was the place of the temple. The first Hagia Sophia was finished in 15 February 360 A.D. under the rule of Constantine II. Together with the Hagia Irene, the Hagia Sophia served as a main church of Constantinople.[3]

This church was chronicled by Socrates of Constantinople (380–440), who claimed that it was built by Constantine the Great. It was built as a traditional Latin colonnaded basilica with galleries and a wooden roof. [4]

The Second Church

In 404 the patriarch of Constantinople, John Chrysostom, came into a conflict with Empress Aelia Eudoxia, wife of the Emperor Arcadias and was sent into exile on 20 June 404. During the following riots, this first church was largely burned down. ^[5] A second church was ordered by Theodosia II, who inaugurated it in 405. The basilica with a wooden roof was built by architect Rufinos. The fire that started during the turmoil of the Nika Revolt resulted in the destruction of the second church of Hagia Sophia, which burned down to the ground in 532.[6]

The Third Church

On February 23, 532, after the eradication of the second church, Emperor Justinian I decided to erect totally different church which would be larger and more majestic than earlier ones.[7]

Justinian chose Isidore of Miletus and Anthemius of Trallesas architects[8]; Anthemius, however, died within the first year. The emperor Justinian I brought the materials over from all the empire, such as Hellenistic columns from the temple of Artemis at Ephesus. Large stones were brought from far-away quarries: porphyry from Egypt, green marble from Thessaly, black stone from the Bosporus region and yellow stone from Syria. More than ten thousand people were employed during this construction. The emperor, together with the patriarch Eutychius, inaugurated the new church on December 27, 537. Justinian spared no expense; the church cost 145,000 kg of gold (worth US$3 billion today) and is one of the most expensive structures ever built.[9] The mosaics inside the church were, however, only completed under the reign of Emperor Justin II (565–578).

The first cracks in the dome became noticeable after the earthquakes of 553 and 557, and a large part of the dome collapsed in 558. The second dome was smaller than the first one but it was seven meters higher; and it was constructed with special bricks made of tufa, so that the dome would be lighter. The tufa bricks were brought in from Phodes.[10]

The inner decorations of the church were changed during the Iconoclastic Period (726-842 AD): the icons and all the panels decorated with figures were put away with and were replaced by simple crosses representing Jesus Christ and Virgin Mary. The western part of the building was damaged again by an earthquake in 869 and restored in 870.[11]A part of the central dome was demolished by another earthquake on 25 October 986 and was restored by architect Tridot.[12]

Crusaders

At the beginning of the 13th century, Hagia Sophia faced another formidable danger – the Latin Crusaders. While the Crusades had traditionally fought against Muslims in Egypt and Israel, the Fourth Crusade took a different turn. Tensions between the Roman Catholic Christians of Western Europe and the Greek Orthodox Christians in the Byzantine Empire had been high for centuries, particularly after the official hole in the church in the 11th century. During the Fourth Crusade, the Crusaders joined forces with the Venetians, who were the economic rulers of the Mediterranean Sea. ^[13]

Despite orders from the Roman Catholic pope condemning attacks on Christian cities, the men of the Fourth Crusade turned away from Jerusalem and set their sights on Constantinople – a much wealthier city to attack and loot. In June of 1203, thousands of Crusaders and Venetians began setting up camp in the outskirts of Constantinople. Despite attempts to build defenses, the Byzantines were overtaken by the Latin army in April 1204, giving way to 57 years of Latin rule.^[14]

In this time, many of Constantinople’s prided relics, which supposedly included the crown of thorns worn by Jesus on the cross, were taken from the city and brought to churches in Rome or other cities in Western Europe. Additionally, many great artworks and treasures the city held were whisked away to the West, greatly depleting Constantinople’s supply of wealth and causing irreparable damage to its economy and prestige.^[15] The Hagia Sophia itself was heavily damaged during the raid of the city, gutted of relics and wealth.^[16]

The dome, which had collapsed during the earthquake in 1348, was restored in 1354 with the special tax collected from the city dwellers.[17]

2) Ottoman Era

The Turks converted the building into a mosque after they seized and took the city on 29 May 1453.[18]At that time, the church was very rundown. Several of its doors had fallen off. In accordance with Ottoman tradition the city’s cathedral was converted into a mosque. However, the church of the Holy Apostles and numerous others remained as churches for the time being.[19] The first wooden minaret and the mihrab, indicating the direction of Mecca, were added to Hagia Sophia during the reign of Muhammad II. The next sultan Bayezid II built a new minaret, replacing the one built by his father. None of these constructions has reached our day.

In the 16th century the Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent (1520–1566) brought back two colossal candles from his conquest of Hungary. They were placed on both sides of the mihrab. During the reign of Selim II (1566–1577), the building started showing signs of weakness. Therefore, it was broadly strengthened with the addition of structural supports to its exterior by the great Ottoman architect Sinan, who is also considered one of the world’s first earthquake engineers. In addition to strengthening the historic Byzantine structure, Sinan built the two additional large minarets at the western end of the building in 1577. Other additional elements were an Imam’s gallery out of marble, a preacher’s lectern and a tiled sultan’s gallery which was altered during Fossati’s restoration later on.[20] The mausoleums of Murad III and Muhammad III were built next to it in the 1600s.

During the reign of Mahmud I a library was built inside (1736), an elementary schools outside (1742) the building. Sultan Mahmud I ordered the renovation of the building in 1739 and added a madrasa (traditional Islamic education center, now the library of the museum), a soup kitchen (for serving to the poor) and a library. In 1740 a fountain for ritual ablutions (Şadirvan) added, which transformed it into Islamic social complex; kulliye. At the same time a new sultan’s gallery and a new mihrab were built inside.

The most prominent renovation of the Hagia Sophia was ordered by Sultan Abdülmecid and completed by eight hundred workers between 1847 and 1849, under the supervision of the Swiss-Italian architect brothers Gaspare and Giuseppe Fossati.[21] The brothers consolidated the dome and vaults, straightened the columns, and revised the decoration of the exterior and the interior of the building. The mosaics in the upper gallery were cleaned. The old chandeliers were replaced by new pendant ones. New gigantic circular-framed disks were hung on columns. They were inscribed with tradition Islamic inscriptions which are the names of Allah, the prophet Muhammad, the first four caliphs Abu Bakr, Umar, Uthman and Ali, and Hassan and Hussain the two grandchildren of Mohammed, by the calligrapher Kazasker İzzed Effendi (1801–1877). In 1850 the architect Fossati built a new sultan’s gallery in a neo-Byzantine style connected to the royal pavilion behind the mosque. Outside the Hagia Sophia, a timekeeper’s building and a new medrese were built. The minarets were altered so that they were of equal height. When the restoration was finished, the mosque was re-opened with ceremonial pomp on 13 July 1849.[22]

3) Modern Turkey Era

In 1934, Mustafa Kemal Ataturk, founder of the modern Turkish republic, signed an order making a museum of Hagia Sophia, which had served as a mosque for nearly five centuries. It was Ataturk’s belief that the mosaics should be revealed, and the work was entrusted to Thomas Whittemore and the Byzantine Institute of America, which he directed.^[23]

In 1985, Hagia Sophia was added to UNESCO’s World Heritage list as part of the Historic Areas of Istanbul.^[24]The international efforts to restore dome mosaics began in 1992 and were busily continued until 2004. The conservators on the scaffolding were busily examining the tesserae, the small cubes making up the mosaic, each one cut from a layer of glass on which leaves of gold or silver were placed, covered by a thin piece of clear glass, and then fused together in a kiln. They were checking each of the millions of tesserae, cleaning and consolidating them.

Revza Ozil of Turkey’s Central Laboratory for Restoration and Conservation in Istanbul estimates that about 53 percent of the original mosaics (from the sixth century or the rebuildings of the tenth and fourteenth centuries) are still present. Some 15 percent of the surface is covered by the mid-nineteenth-century Fossati restoration and another 29 percent from the restoration work of the Pious Foundation at the beginning of the twentieth century. In both of these cases the repaired areas are a plaster surface painted to resemble the Byzantine mosaics. ^[25]

B) ARCHITECTURE

Outline

Hagia Sophia, which is the unsurpassable example of Byzantine art, is evaluated to be mixture of eastern and western architectural tradition. The basilican church plan with three naves, which was known since early times, was unified with the central plan in Hagia Sophia and enormous dome came to cover the central hall. [26]

The church which is dated back to the early period of Byzantine art was built under Roman influence. As Byzantine art inclined more towards eastern art in the following periods, Hagia Sophia came to be the only monument in her unique style and one of the most outstanding monuments of world art in general.[27]

The mosaics seen in Hagia Sophia are scenes dedicated to specific persons and made throughout the centuries. The classical scenes in the church interiors which tell of the lives of Jesus Christ and Virgin Mary are not seen in Byzantine art. And, also there is no consistency of style in Hagia Sophia’s figurative panels.

1) Byzantine Era

It can be seen easily the ruins of the former Hagia Sophia of the era of Theodosius II in the ditch before entering St. Sophia from the portal at the west. Main building is behind the inner and outer narthex. The outer narthex is 5.75 m wide and has a simple structure. The stucco tablets where the decisions of the council of 1116 are written are to be seen in this section. There are five doors which lead to the inner narthex. [28]

The inner Narthex

The inner narthex is wider and higher than the outer one. The ceiling is decorated with geometrically designed mosaics on a golden basis and the walls are covered with thinly veined marble plates. Both sides of the inner narthex lead to the slopes that wind up to the gallery.

There is also a side entrance called the Horologion Door at the south. This entrance which has the form of a room was sometimes used as the emperor’s entrance door at some ceremonies. [29]

The central door at the inner narthex which leads to the central hall is called the Imperial Door. The emperor used to kneel down here before entered the central hall of the church. In the mosaic above this door, Jesus Christ sitting on the preciously ornament throne at the center, holding an inscription which says, “May peace fall on you all. I am the light of the world”, Gabriel in the medallion on the right, and the Virgin Mary on the left. [30]

It is usually believed, that the figure kneeling at the left is Emperor Leon VI who begs Christ for permission for a new marriage. [31] This mosaic was made in 920, was covered up by the Ottomans, and disposed again after the restoration in 1933. [32]

The main hall

The inner length of the main hall is 73.50 meters and its width is 69.50 meters. The apse is at its eastern walls. The central nave is distinguished from the side naves through four big columns and supports. The central dome is 55.60 meters high and their diameter is between 31.24 and 32.81 meters because it is not circle. The dome, which was more flat at the time of construction, was damaged by the earthquake in 558, was restored afterwards and rebuilt with windows and pendants. [33]

There are crosses on the marble floor in the main hall. They are at specific intervals along the circumference of the dome. The columns erected in the church were taken from different temples within the boundaries of the empire. The green marble columns in the main hall were brought from the Temple of Artemis in Ephesus and the porphyric ones from Baalbek.

There are 107 columns in Hagia Sophia, 47 of which are in the ground floor and 60 are in the upper one. The monograms of Emperor Justinian and his wife Theodora can be seen at the centers of the capitals. The large marble jars and vases of the Hellenistic period seen at the two sides of the entrance are approximately three tons heavy and were brought from Pergamum.

They were placed in Hagia Sophia during the reign of Murat III (1574-1595), and were probably used for the ritual washings before prayer. The central space, which is decorated with colorful mosaics, is accepted to be the place of the crowning ceremony of the new emperor, and is thought to be built in a large age. The figure of Virgin Mary holding the Child is seen on the golden base of the half-dome of the apses.[34]

The galleries which are reached over the slopes in the north and in the south used to be ladies’ departments. In the beginning, men and women used to pay religious service separately. This section with a cradle vault which extends over the whole side naves and narthex has the empress’ seat right at the center across the apses. This place is separated by the thin mosaic strips on the floor and has joints with wooden ornaments which art historians favor very much. There is a section at the southern end of the gallery, separated by a marble portal and rich with mosaic panes, which was called the Priest’s Rooms in the Ottoman era. The marble section at the center is popularly known as the door to heaven and hell. The ceremonial book written by Emperor Constantine Prophyrogenitia (913-959) indicates that this section was used at those ceremonies which the emperor and the patriarch attended.[35]

A high quality mosaic pane attracts attention right after this portal. The picture here is called the Diesis scene and shows Christ at the center with Virgin Mary at his right and john the Baptist at his left. The bottom part of the pane with a golden background has been demolished. The pane is the most outstanding one in the whole church when style and quality are concerned. In this picture, Virgin Mary and john the Baptist are shown begging Christ for mercy for their mankind at the doomsday. Christ must be sitting on a throne which is now extinct with only a part of the stool under his foot. He blesses with one hand and holds the bible with the other. There is a deep sorrow marked on the faces of all the figures.

The emperor mosaics at the two sides of the southern window of the upper gallery are crucial because they are true portraits of the persons they display. Among these panes, the mosaic in the north of the southern gallery shows Christ in the middle with Emperor Constantine Monomachus (104-1055) at his left and Empress Zoe (1028-1050) at his right.[36]

Empress Zoe married number times and the pictures and the name of the emperor on the panes were changed every time she had a new spouse. She was married either to her first husband, Romanus III Argyrus or her second husband, Michael IV Paphylagonian when the first painting was made. The mosaic shows Empress Zoe and her third husband, Constantine IX Monomachus, in rich ceremonial arrays decorated with precious gem stones. The emperor offers a pouch of gold to Jesus Christ sitting on the throne at the center. An inscription reading, “Constantine Monomachus, the Emperor of the Romans” is seen on the emperor’s figure.

The empress is shown holding a paper roll which legalizes the emperor’s donation. Christ is shown in a simple navy blue gown, and he sits on an ornamented throne, holding a pane with a cross in one hand and blessing them with the other. That mosaic dates back to the XL century.

The mosaic near it shows Emperor John II Comnenus (1118-1143) offering a pouch of money to Virgin Mary who holds the Child on her lap. Empress Irene, who was the daughter of the Hungarian king, is shown near him and she is holding a paper roll which legalizes his donation. Their son Alexius, who died of pneumonia (1112), is pictured on the side wall. The whole family is dressed in rich ceremonial clothing.[37]

The emperor, his blond and rosy-cheeked spouse and their sick son are all given with realistic details. This mosaic dates back to the XII century.

The picture of Alexander, the brother of Leon VI, is seen at a corner in the northern gallery. The reason for Alexander to be shown in such a dark corner is not clear especially when we consider his co-regency with his brother. This mosaic dates back to 912-913. The mosaics of prominent clergymen are seen in the huge vaults covering the side naves. These clergymen are Ignatius the younger, the Patriarch of Istanbul, John Chrysostom, and the Patriarch of Antioch, Ignatius.

The Exit

Over the door to the south of the inner narthex, it is seen the Virgin Mary with Child at the center, Emperor Justinian at her right and Emperor Constantine at her left. This entrance was used by some emperors who attended the ceremonies in St. Sophia.

The emperor portraits which were added to the pane during the reign of Basil II (976-1025) and excavated in 1933 are not genuine portraits: One of the emperors displayed here lived in the IV and, the other in the VI centuries but both of them are shown in the ceremonial dresses of the X. century. Emperor Justinian to the right of Virgin Mary is holding a model of St. Sophia of which he was the founder, and his name and attributes are written beside it. Both emperors are shown wearing golden gowns and with crowns on their heads.[38]

Virgin Mary sits on a throne at the center with the Child on her lap. Jesus holds a paper roll denoting his deity and blesses with his other hand. The word “Theodore” (mother of God) in abbreviated form is seen on both sides of Mary’s head.

There is a bronze door in this section which was brought in from a Hellenistic temple in Tarsus.

The door dates back to the II century B.C and the ornaments on it are worthy of attraction. It was placed in St. Sophia during the reign of Theophilus (829-842) in the Iconoclastic Period. This door is the present exit of the museum.[39]

2) Ottoman Era

Because Islam forbids figures in place of worship, only the faces of the human figures in Hagia Sophia were covered up first but then they were all painted towards the middle of 18^th century.[40] There is a Quran verse written by Kazasker Mustafa Izzet at the center of the dome. It is believed, that a picture of Christ the Savior has stood at the center during the Byzantine Empire.[41]

Cherubs are painted in the four pendants under the dome. Their faces were also covered up with golden medaillons during the restoration in the 19^th century because of prohibition of figures in places of worship in Islam. The four round panels with a diameter of 7.5 meters each, which are as high as the gallery, were constructed by Kazasker Mustafa Izzet during the reign of Sultan Abdulmecid in the 19^th century, and bear the names of God, Prophet Muhammad, the four chalips, Abubakr, Omar, Othman, and Ali and the names of Ali’s sons, Hasan and Huseyin. [42]

The mosque niche which shows the direction of Mecca built after the church was turned to a mosque in 15th century. Architect G. Fossati has built the gallery of the sultan during Abdulmecid’s rule in the 19th century.

The library was built by sultan Mahmut I in 1736 is to be seen in the southern nave. This construction is a beautiful example of Turkish art with its cupboard doors inlaid with mother of pearl, Koran stands and tiles.

There is a column called the “perspiring column” to the south-west of the northern nave. There are quite a number of myths about this column. Today, people stick their fingers in a hole on the column as they murmur their whishes.

The Sultans’ Tombs

The Tomb of Selim II

Sinan is the architect of this tomb which was built in 1577. This square mausoleum has two domes and is coated with marble on the outside. It is decorated with outstanding tiles inside.

Sultan Selim II, Nurbanu Sultan, Gevher Sultan, Selim II’s son Abdullah, and some of his other sons and daughters are buried in the mausoleum.[43]

The Mausoleum of Murat III

This mausoleum was built by architect Davut Aga and completed after the sultan’s death. It has a hexagonal plan and the mausoleum is covered with marble plates and coral red tiles in the XVI century. Murat Ill’s mother, Safiye Sultan, his sons and his daughters are also buried here.[44]

The Mausoleum of Mehmet III

This octagonal mausoleum is the work of architect Dalgig Ahmet. It is covered with marble plates on the outside, iznik tiles decorate the inner walls. Sultan Mehmet III, Ahmet Ill’s mother, Handan Sultan, the sons and daughters of Ahmet I, and Murat Ill’s daughter, Ay§e Sultan, are buried here.

The Tomb of Sultan Ibrahim and Mustafa I

Hagia Sophia’s baptism hall was used as an oil mill for a short period after the conquest. When Mustafa I died in 1623, a proper place could not be found, and the oil mill was turned into a mausoleum.

Sultan Ibrahim was buried in the same place when he died in 1648. This mausoleum has no decorations other than an engraving done with a pen.[45]

The St. Sophia Fountain

Sultan Mahmud I (1730-1754) favored the foundations of Ayasofya very much and had an elementary school, a clock room and the Ayasofya Fountain built in the garden. The Fountain is fully in the style of the Tulip Era and one of the best examples of Turkish art. This Fountain has eight marble columns and its lead eaves rest on eight wide arches. The monumental fountain’s inscription tells us, that it was built in 1740.[46]

Conclusion

Hagia Sophia, as keeping Christian and Islamic heritage, is unique building in the Istanbul. Nearly sixteen hundred years old building pays attraction of people all around the world with its amazing architecture and outstanding history. It witnessed three greatest Empires; Roman, Byzantine and Ottoman. Now, as Museum it witnesses to Modern age under the Republic of Turkey. It was the greatest church in the world nearly one thousand years. It seems that great Emperor Justinian could feel that when he was saying “Oh Solomon, I surpassed you”. He was somehow right because this great monument replaced Solomon’s Temple for Eastern Church. Many earthquakes could not destroy it totally because all the Empires were ready to repair it without looking its cost as we see in fourteen century. It keeps images and icons of the holies from 6^th to 15^th century which makes it incredible proof for historians which enlightens these centuries. Its architectural features give new ideas for modern architects’ buildings and temples as it gave in the past. For Muslim community, it has very special place also. Even in the tradition of the Prophet Muhammad we can see the particular place of Istanbul which had the Hagia Sophia. It is reported that many companions of the prophet came and prayed during the fighting for Istanbul against Byzantines in seventh century. The Ottoman Turks, after conquering the Constantinople, did not remove all the icons. Rather, they just covered the icons with the paintings which by that we can have the icons even from sixth century. It clearly shows the respect of Ottoman tradition towards the history and Ottomans’ religious tolerance. After secularizing of Republic of Turkey we can see that the this great monument was converted into museum in order to serve all kind of members of religions as the example of historical, cultural and religious wonder building.

Bibliography

Aydingun, Sengul, Rose, Mark, Saving a Fabled Sanctuary, Archaeology, Nov/Dec. 2003, Vol. 56, Issue 6

Elyse, Franko, The Hagia Sophia, World & I, Sep2007, Vol. 22, Issue 9

Hughes, Virginia, Shaken not Stirred, Nature, Vol, 443, 28 September 2006

Kariye Museum, Rehber Yayim Basim Dagitim, Istanbul, 1999

Kinross, Lord, Hagia Sophia, Newsweek Publication, New York, 1972

Mathews, F. Thomas, The Early Churches of Constantinople, The Pennsylvania State University Press, London, 1977

Mango, Cyril, The Mosaics of St Sophia at Istanbul, the Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection, Washington,1962

Nelson, Robert, Hagia Sophia 1850-1950, The University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 2004

www.kultur.gov.tr

http://www.byzantium1200.com/

[2] Kinross, Lord, Hagia Sophia, 23

[3] Elyse, The Hagia Sophia

[4] Kinross, 24

[5] Elyse, The Hagia Sophia

[6] Kinross, 27

[7] Mathews, F. Thomas, The Early Churches of Constantinople, 88

[8] According to Ahmet Cakmak, professor emeritus in earthquake engineering at Princeton University, Anthemius was the best military engineer that Justinian had and Isidorus was the director of the biggest scientific academy in the world at that time. See, Hughes, Virginia, Nature, v. 443|28, September 2006 , 390

[9] Hughes, Virginia, Nature,v 443|28 September 2006

[10] Kariye Museum, The Hagia Sophia, 10

[11]Ibid, 10

[12] Ibid, 10

[13] Elyse, The Hagia Sophia

[14] Ibid, v. 9

[15] Ibid, v. 9

[16] Ibid, v. 9

[17] Kariye Museum, 10

[18] Ibid, 10

[19] http://www.kultur.gov.tr/EN/BelgeGoster.aspx?17A16AE30572D313A79D6F5E6C1B43FF4D848C01E4FDDE8A

[20] Kariye Museum, 13

[21] For more about Fossati’s restoration, see The Mosaics of St Sophia at Istanbul by Cyril Mango, 7-21

[22] Kariye Museum, 13

[23] In a letter to his former teacher, Henri Matisse, Whittemore wrote, “My Dear Master, the fourth year of my work uncovering and cleaning the mosaics in Hagia Sophia in Istanbul is now over. Peerless examples of Byzantine art have been preserved in this great church for a thousand years.”, See Aydingun, Sengul, Rose, Mark, Saving a Fabled Sanctuary, Archaeology, Issue 6:

[24] Aydingun, Saving a Fabled Sanctuary, v. 56

[25] Ibid, v. 56

[26] Kariye Museum, 10

[27] Ibid, 10

[28] Ibid, 15

[29] Ibid, 15

[30] Ibid, 20

[31] Emperor Leon VI has married three times though this was against Orthodox rules, never had a son by his wives but had one by his mistress, Zoe, and begged Christ to allow him to marry her and make her the mother of his future sons, See, Kariye Museum, 20

[32] Ibid, 20

[33] Ibid, 22

[34] Ibid, 26

[35] Ibid, 27

[36] Ibid, 28

[37] Ibid, 30

[38] Ibid, 30

[39] Ibid, 32

[40] Ibid, 26

[41] Ibid, 26

[42] Ibid

[43] Ibid, 32

[44] Ibid, 39

[45] Ibid, 40

[46] Ibid, 41